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Mental Health, Illness Diagnosis

The diagnosis of a mental illness is usually done by a licensed mental health professional or medical doctor. The diagnosis of a mental illness usually involves a number of sources and instruments, including a personal history, a physical exam, an evaluation of behavior, a symptom inventory, condition-specific instrument (such as the Beck Depression Inventory), and other information as suggested by the history (including neuroimaging and blood tests) in order to arrive at a diagnosis. In the U.S., criteria for the diagnosis of a specific mental illness are given in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. At the start of the 20th century there were only a dozen recognized mental illnesses. By 1952 there were 192 and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) today lists 374. Depending on perspective, this could be seen as the result of one or more of: More effective diagnosis and better characterization of mental illness, due to over a century of research in a new field of science and academia. A highly increased incidence of mental illness, due to some causative agent such as substances in the environment, or, as some have argued, the ever-increasing stress of everyday life. An over-medicalisation of human thought processes, and an increasing tendency on the part of mental health experts to label individual "quirks and foibles" as illness. Increasing politicization of the DSM, perhaps due in part to the Peter principle, which may allow decision-makers with more discriminating, compartmentalizing thought processes to dominate the higher ranks of the medical establishment. Categories of mental illnesses & disorders In the United States, mental illnesses have been categorized into groups according to their common symptoms in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, compiled by the American Psychiatric Association. One important caveat is that all the DSMs have shortcomings. Very often consumer groups or clinical researchers have different criteria for their diagnosis of a disorder. The DSM V due out in 2011 will hopefully address these differences. There are thirteen different categories, some containing a myriad of illnesses and others only a few. Selecting any of the Wikipedia categories in the table will allow you access to all the articles and subcategories in that category. DSM Group Examples Wikipedia category Disorders usually first diagnosed in infancy, childhood or adolescence. *Disorders such as autism and epilepsy have also been referred to as developmental disorders and developmental disabilities. Mental retardation, autism Delirium, dementia, and amnesia and other cognitive disorders Alzheimer's disease Category:Memory disorders and Category:Cognitive disorders Mental disorders due to a general medical condition AIDS-related psychosis Category:Mental disorders due to a general medical condition Substance-related disorders Alcohol abuse Category:Substance-related disorders Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders Delusional disorder Category:Psychosis Mood disorders Clinical depression, Bipolar disorder Category:Mood disorders Anxiety disorders General anxiety disorder Category:Anxiety disorders Somatoform disorders Somatization disorder Category:Somatoform disorders Factitious disorders Munchausen syndrome Category:Factitious disorders Dissociative disorders Dissociative identity disorder Category:Dissociative disorders Sexual and gender identity disorders Dyspareunia, Gender identity disorder Category:Sexual and gender identity disorders Eating disorders Anorexia nervosa Category:Eating disorders Sleep disorders Insomnia Category:Sleep disorders Impulse-control disorders not elsewhere classified Kleptomania Category:Impulse-control disorder not elsewhere classified Adjustment disorders Adjustment disorder Category:Adjustment disorders Personality disorders Narcissistic personality disorder Category:Personality disorders Other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention Tardive dyskinesia, Child abuse Category:Other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention Most organizations do not view mental retardation as a mental illness. The Mental Health Association of Southeastern Pennsylvania states: 'Mental illness and mental retardation are not the same thing. Some people are born with mental retardation, a condition characterized by below-average intelligence throughout one's life. Mental illness, however, can affect anyone at any time. In fact, certain mental illnesses are more common among people with high intelligence and creativity.' However, people with developmental disabilities, such as mental retardation, are more likely to experience mental illness than those in the general community [1]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mental_illness#Categories_of_mental_illnesses_.26_disorders

Mental Health, Treatment

Forms of treatment for the various types of mental illness include medication and therapy. One of the primary purposes of mental health professionals, including psychiatrists, specializing in using the biomedical approach, and psychologists, specializing in providing therapy, is to improve an individual's mental health. If medications are used, a psychiatrist and patient are responsible for monitoring and managing the prescription of these medications and their effects. Symptoms may disappear, a patient may not suffer from a condition and may seemingly be cured, but the underlying vulnerability of almost any condition remains. With chronic mental disorders, the chances of the symptoms recurring will be affected by the number of episodes the patient has had in the past, the effectiveness of the treatment, as well as external factors. If a mental illness has been identified as a physiological problem, it frequently may be manifested through and/or exacerbated by behavior. Ergo, individuals suffering from physiological disorders may benefit from psychotherapy. The most basic treatment involves identifying maladaptive, self-destructive, or inappropriate behaviors and finding ways, with the patient, of coping with, eliminating, or altering those behaviors to promote overall mental health. Often individuals with serious mental illness will engage in several different treatment modalities, all with specific goals. For example, a patient with chronic schizophrenia may be involved in treatment using medication, take part in psychotherapy to help manage their life-long condition, be engaged in case management (sometimes referred to as "service coordination"), use day treatment, utilize a psychosocial rehabilitation program, and/or take part in a assertive community treatment program to help move them towards a more productive and independent role in the community. Robert Burton wrote in the 16th century in his classic work, The Anatomy of Melancholy, that music and dance were critical in treating mental illness, especially melancholia. [2] [3] In November 2006, Dr. Michael J. Crawford [4] and his colleagues again found that music therapy helped the outcomes of Schizophrenic patients. [5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_illness#Treatment

Mental Health, Illness Prevalence

According to the 2003 report of the U.S. President's New Freedom Commission on Mental Health, major mental illness, including clinical depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder, when compared with all other diseases (such as cancer and heart disease), is the most common cause of disability in the United States. Additionally, according to National Alliance for the Mentally Ill (NAMI), an American advocacy organization which accepts funding from the pharmaceutical industry, 23% of North American adults will suffer from a clinically diagnosable mental illness in a given year, but less than half of them will suffer symptoms severe enough to disrupt their daily functioning. Approximately 9% to 13% of children under the age of 18 experience serious emotional disturbance with substantial functional impairment; 5% to 9% have serious emotional disturbance with extreme functional impairment due to a mental illness. It is suggested that many of these young people will recover from their illnesses before reaching adulthood, and go on to lead normal lives uncomplicated by illness. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_illness#Prevalence

Mental Health, Illness Causes

Main article: Causes of psychiatric disorder Mental illness may be caused by a number of factors, or the confluence of several factors. Different schools of thought, including the biological, the psychological, and the social, offer different explanations, although current theories usually hold that all three contribute in varying amounts to any individual's illness. The most popular explanations for mental illness, currently, are biological explanations; a person with a mental illness may have a difference in brain structure or function or in neurochemistry, through either genetic or environmental vulnerabilities (such as in utero alcohol exposure). For example, many people diagnosed with schizophrenia have been shown to have enlarged ventricles and reduced grey matter in the brain. Additionally, some argue that neurotransmitter imbalance may cause mental illnesses. Finally, many genetic studies or twin studies have shown strong evidence that mental illnesses such as bipolar disorder (manic depression) and schizophrenia can be inherited. While biological explanations are the most popular explanations for mental illness, psychological explanations are also offered. Psychological theorists suggest that individual conflict, crisis, stress, or trauma may lead to the development of mental illness, especially in vulnerable individuals. For example, a child who witnesses the homicide of a parent may develop depression, anxiety, or post-traumatic stress disorder. Finally, social theorists suggest that mental illness may be caused by significant events in, or the conditions of, one’s environment. For example, there may be higher incidences of mental illness in areas that are involved in civil or military actions or that have recently suffered a major natural or man-made disaster. Areas that also suffer from endemic poverty, transience, and few resources and supports are also suggested to have higher rates of mental illness than more affluent or stable areas. There are likely multiple causes of mental illness. There has been a focus on the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Each disorder is likely to have its own etiology, or causation. Treatment options include psychiatric medication, psychotherapy, lifestyle adjustments, other supportive measures or a combination of these. Sufferers typically seek treatment only when psychiatric symptoms make it very difficult to function, but early treatment - when symptoms are mild or moderate - will generally lead to a better long-term outcome. As with many physical diseases, the diagnostic process is complex and requires the careful skills of a gifted medical detective. Diagnosis remains a subjective - albeit increasingly evidence-based and scientific - art that includes careful and detailed assessment of patient histories and current and past symptoms. Psychiatric disorders vary from one individual to another and may be mild, severe, or anything in between. Even in one person, symptoms can vary over time from their most severe to complete remission and back. These illnesses often are episodic, and "flare-ups" may be triggered by stress and other factors. If one becomes ill again after a symptom-free period it is not due to a lack of willpower or self-control, but rather the natural waxing and waning of the illness. Appropriate treatment of the disease can help stabilize the course of the illness and reduce or eliminate the waxing and waning of symptoms. Regarding the major psychiatric disorders (e.g. bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, major depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder) the nature versus nurture debate has generally been settled. The answer is "both". The major psychiatric disorders all show strong evidence of heritability. Using genograms, genetic studies and observing identical twins, one or both of whom had mental illness and who were reared apart (to control for environment), psychiatric researchers have shown high rates of heritability (significantly higher than for the population at large) for most mental illnesses, with bipolar disorder showing the highest inheritance and therefore strongest biological component. A small minority of individuals question whether mental illness is "real." This view is promoted by Scientologists and the anti-psychiatry movement. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_illness#Causes

Mental Health, Patient Advocacy

Patient advocacy organizations have been helpful in changing the stereotype of psychiatric illness. These stereotypes are typically made by individuals or groups who know little or nothing about psychiatric illness and mistakenly believe that these illnesses reflects a lack of willpower by the individual. It is important to emphasize that these illnesses are not a sign of personal weakness. In fact, the truth is that most psychiatric patients have endured more pain than those that do not have these illnesses will ever experience. A case could be made that these individuals are in fact quite strong, even when compromised by symptoms. Discrimination against people who have mental illnesses keeps them from seeking help. Mental health is as important as physical health to the overall well-being of individuals, societies and countries. Yet only a small minority of the 450 million people living with a mental or behavioral disorder is receiving treatment. While one in five Americans lives with a mental disorder in any given year, half of people with severe mental illnesses received no treatment in the past 12 months. Fear of disclosure, rejection by friends, and ultimately discrimination are just a few reasons why people with mental illnesses don't seek help. On-line supportive therapy from advocate mental health organizations have helped to educate and eliminate much of the stigma & shame they have felt in their aloneness to continue their journey from shame and isolation to dignity and responsibility by encouraging them to receive treatment and therapy. Moreover, most individuals would like to be productive and high-functioning. Thus, patient advocacy organizations try to reverse the stereotype problem by educating the public, fighting stigma, supporting local, state and national legislation that is helpful to individuals with psychiatric disorders, encouraging those with illnesses to seek treatment and to instill hope in those afflicted so that they can continue on the path toward recovery, wellness and a fulfilling and meaningful life. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_illness#Patient_advocacy

Mental Health, Controversy

Main articles: Anti-psychiatry and Causes of psychiatric disorder Psychiatry remains somewhat controversial to some people. For example, over thirty years ago homosexuality was considered a mental disorder in American psychiatry (see DSM-II); at the same time, the American psychiatry establishment was also leading the way in refusing to pathologise homosexuality any more and has since argued against such practices as trying to turn gay people straight through therapy. It can be argued that what psychiatry used to consider disorder or illness was likely the result of cultural norms or bias and this perception varies over time and place, but this is true of all illnesses. Contemporary psychiatry, however, is said to be guided by evidence-based medicine. Thus, it has becoming much more scientific and much less speculative than it once was. However, some diagnoses remain controversial. For instance, whilst a person with transsexualism who is not suffering as a result would probably not be considered to be mentally ill, a person who is suffering from a belief that they are trapped in the wrong body may be considered to have gender dysphoria. Nevertheless, dysfunction or subjective distress are required before such a diagnosis can be made.[citation needed] As mentioned above, neurochemical studies have revealed abnormalities in neurotransmitter functioning among individuals with certain psychiatric diagnoses. Also, structural or neuroanatomical differences among brains of people with schizophrenia have been detected via neuroimaging. Some mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, are known to be hereditary and possible links between certain genes and particular mental disorders have been found. It is widely held that some features that are considered to be within the norm, such as sexual orientation or special talents are also likely to have a neurobiological or genetic basis. Traumatic life experiences that exceed an individual's coping ability and may result in lasting changes in brain chemistry. Patterns of learned behavior can also alter brain chemistry, for better or for worse. Cognitive behavior therapy focuses on changing patterns of thinking through learning, which relieve anxiety disorders, depressive disorders and to some extent bipolar disorders (accompanied by medication). Drug therapies for severe mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and clinical depression, consistent with biochemical models, are remarkably effective. They require a close collaboration between patient and prescriber, so that people with these illnesses understand the difference between being over-medicated and optimally-treated. Psychiatrists who "cripple" their patient's brain response system are actually over-medicating their patients; and patients who allow themselves to be over-medicated aren't discussing the problem with their psychiatrist. Others argue that the effectiveness of drugs does not imply that their use is safe or desirable. However, discussion with one's doctor of a certain drugs safety/side effects profile and intended effect on one's symptoms and disorder is one adaptive alternative to not using medications altogether. Psychiatrists make the analogy that many physical conditions, such as diabetes, must also be controlled with use of medications throughout the individuals lifetime. Moreover, in mental illness, studies show that patients' symptoms return once drug treatment is stopped. It is important to note that the existence of mental illness and the legitimacy of the psychiatric profession have not been universally accepted by some individuals and groups, although this view is changing rapidly. Some professionals, notably Thomas Szasz, Professor Emeritus of Psychiatry at Syracuse, are profoundly opposed to the practice of applying the label "mental illness." The anti-psychiatry movement often refers to what it considers to be the "myth of mental illness" and argues against a biological origin for mental disorders, pointing out that the differences in levels of neurotransmitter, or even in size of brain structures, cannot be taken as indications of illness. Alternatively, some argue that all human experience has a biological origin and so no pattern of behavior can be classified as an illness per se. Other arguments against psychiatry include the view that electroconvulsive therapy damages the person. It remains controversial even if it can be life-saving in many circumstances. Long-term institutionalization, for mental illness rarely occurs now, but hospitalization for acute psychiatric illness still does. Hospitalization is usually very short (some would argue too short to effectively stabilize the patient) due to the realities imposed by managed care. Some people currently diagnosed with autism are against the notion of a neuropsychiatric disorder. For example, some autistic individuals have organized and formed the autistic rights movement. They claim that autism is a form of neurodiversity. We are all neurodiverse. That is why we have different personalities, strengths and talents. Some argue that untreated mental disorders can get in the way of our expressing our signature strengths. On the other hand, neurodiversity advocates argue that there may be more positive potential in recognizing neurodiverse subjects outside the framework of pathology. In other words, it might prove more helpful to acknowledge a broader spectrum of human variation (e.g., "autism" or "schizophrenia" as a different type of "normal" human variation), rather than approaching these variations as "mental illnesses" in need of "cures." [edit] Patient advocacy Patient advocacy organizations have been helpful in changing the stereotype of psychiatric illness. These stereotypes are typically made by individuals or groups who know little or nothing about psychiatric illness and mistakenly believe that these illnesses reflects a lack of willpower by the individual. It is important to emphasize that these illnesses are not a sign of personal weakness. In fact, the truth is that most psychiatric patients have endured more pain than those that do not have these illnesses will ever experience. A case could be made that these individuals are in fact quite strong, even when compromised by symptoms. Discrimination against people who have mental illnesses keeps them from seeking help. Mental health is as important as physical health to the overall well-being of individuals, societies and countries. Yet only a small minority of the 450 million people living with a mental or behavioral disorder is receiving treatment. While one in five Americans lives with a mental disorder in any given year, half of people with severe mental illnesses received no treatment in the past 12 months. Fear of disclosure, rejection by friends, and ultimately discrimination are just a few reasons why people with mental illnesses don't seek help. On-line supportive therapy from advocate mental health organizations have helped to educate and eliminate much of the stigma & shame they have felt in their aloneness to continue their journey from shame and isolation to dignity and responsibility by encouraging them to receive treatment and therapy. Moreover, most individuals would like to be productive and high-functioning. Thus, patient advocacy organizations try to reverse the stereotype problem by educating the public, fighting stigma, supporting local, state and national legislation that is helpful to individuals with psychiatric disorders, encouraging those with illnesses to seek treatment and to instill hope in those afflicted so that they can continue on the path toward recovery, wellness and a fulfilling and meaningful life. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_illness#Controversy

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Sunday, December 31, 2006

STEP OUT & STEP UP, OR STEP DOWN

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Mental Health, Illness Diagnosis

Mental Health, Treatment

Mental Health, Illness Prevalence

Mental Health, Illness Causes

Mental Health, Patient Advocacy

Mental Health, Controversy

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